See soorce fer Muin

{{fixscots}}
{{Infobox planet
| name = Muin
| apsis = gee
| symbol = [[file:Moon decrescent symbol (bold).svg|20px|☾]]
| image = FullMoon2010.jpg
| caption = [[Full muin]] as seen frae Yird's [[Northren Hemisphere]]
| background = #ddd
| adjectives = {{hlist |[[wikt:lunar|Lunar]] |[[wikt:selenic|selenic]]}}
| periapsis = {{gaps |362 |600}}&nbsp;km<br />({{gaps |356 |400}}–{{gaps |370 |400}}&nbsp;km)
| apoapsis = {{gaps |405 |400}}&nbsp;km<br />({{gaps |404 |000}}–{{gaps |406 |700}}&nbsp;km)
| semimajor = {{val |384399 |u=km}}{{nbsp |2}}({{val |0.00257 |u=AU}})<ref name="W06"/>
| eccentricity = {{val |0.0549}}<ref name="W06"/>
| period = {{longitem |class=nowrap |{{val |27.321661 |ul=d}}<br />{{smaller |(27&thinsp;d 7&thinsp;h 43&thinsp;min 11.5&thinsp;s<ref name="W06"/>)}}}}
| synodic_period = {{longitem |class=nowrap |{{val |29.530589 |u=d}}<br />{{smaller |(29&thinsp;d 12&thinsp;h 44&thinsp;min 2.9&thinsp;s)}}}}
| avg_speed = {{val |1.022 |ul=km/s}}
| inclination = {{nowrap |5.145° tae the [[ecliptic]]<ref name="Lang2011"/>{{efn|name=inclination}}}}
| asc_node = {{longitem |Regressin bi ane [[orbit|revolution]] in 18.61&nbsp;years}}
| arg_peri = {{longitem |Progressin bi ane revolution in 8.85&nbsp;years}}
| satellite_of = [[Yird]]{{efn|name=near-Earth asteroids}}<ref name="Morais2002"/>
| flattening = {{val |0.0012}}<ref name="NSSDC"/>
| equatorial_radius = {{nowrap |{{val |1738.1 |u=km}}{{nbsp |2}}{{smaller |(0.273 o Yird's)}}<ref name="NSSDC"/>}}
| polar_radius = {{nowrap |{{val |1736.0 |u=km}}{{nbsp |2}}{{smaller |(0.273 o Yird's)}}<ref name="NSSDC"/>}}
| mean_radius = {{nowrap |{{val |1737.1 |u=km}}{{nbsp |2}}{{smaller |(0.273 o Yird's)}}<ref name="W06"/><ref name="NSSDC"/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Smith |first1=David E. |last2=Zuber |first2=Maria T. |last3=Neumann |first3=Gregory A. |last4=Lemoine|first4=Frank G. |title=Topography of the Moon from the Clementine lidar |journal=[[Journal of Geophysical Research]] |date=1 January 1997 |volume=102 |issue=E1 |page=1601 |doi=10.1029/96JE02940 |bibcode=1997JGR...102.1591S}}</ref>}}
| circumference = {{nowrap |{{val |10921 |u=km}}{{nbsp |2}}{{smaller |([[equator]]ial)}}}}
| surface_area = {{nowrap |{{val |3.793 |e=7 |u=km2}}{{nbsp |2}}{{smaller |(0.074 o Yird's)}}}}
| volume = {{nowrap |{{val |2.1958 |e=10 |u=km3}}{{nbsp |2}}{{smaller |(0.020 o Yird's)<ref name="NSSDC"/>}}}}
| mass = {{nowrap |{{val |7.342 |e=22 |u=kg}}{{nbsp |2}}{{smaller |({{val |0.012300}} o Yird's)<ref name="W06"/><ref name="NSSDC"/>}}}}
| density = {{val |3.344 |ul=g/cm3}}<ref name="W06"/><ref name="NSSDC"/><br /><small>{{val |0.606}} × Yird</small>
| surface_grav = {{nowrap |{{val |1.62 |ul=m/s2}}{{nbsp |2}}{{smaller |({{val |0.1654 |u=[[G-force|g]]}})<ref name="NSSDC"/>}}}}
| moment_of_inertia_factor = {{val |0.3929 |0.0009}}<ref name="Williams1996" /> 
| escape_velocity = {{val |2.38 |ul=km/s}}
| sidereal_day = {{nowrap |{{val |27.321661 |u=d}}{{nbsp |2}}{{smaller |([[tidal lockin|synchronous]])}}}}
<!-- Wieczorek et al. 2006 -->
| rot_velocity = {{nowrap |4.627 m/s}}
| axial_tilt = {{ublist |class=nowrap |1.5424° tae [[ecliptic]]<!--1.533° according to Conn 2007-->|6.687° tae [[Orbital plane (astronomy)|orbit plane]]<ref name="Lang2011"/><!--6.4° according to Grego;<ref name="Grego2005">Grego, Peter,   [https://books.google.com/books?id=z6Pgt9xEW9gC&pg=PA48 ''The Moon and How to Observe It''], Springer, 2005</ref> 6.6783° according to Conn.<ref name="Conn2007">Conn, David (2007); ''Lednorf's Dilemma'', AuthorHouse, Bloomington (IN)</ref>-->}}
| albedo = 0.136<ref name="Saari"/>
| temp_name1 = Equator
| min_temp_1 = 100 [[Kelvin|K]]
| mean_temp_1 = 220 K
| max_temp_1 = 390 K
| temp_name2 = 85°N&nbsp;
| min_temp_2 = 
| mean_temp_2 = 150 K
| max_temp_2 = 230 K<ref name="Vasavada1999"/>
| magnitude = {{ublist |class=nowrap |−2.5 tae −12.9{{efn |name=maxval}} |−12.74{{nbsp |2}}{{smaller |(mean [[full muin]])}}<ref name="NSSDC"/>}}
| angular_size = {{nowrap |29.3 tae 34.1 [[meenit an seicont o arc|arcmeenits]]<ref name="NSSDC"/>{{efn |name=angular size}}}}
| atmosphere = yes
| atmosphere_ref = <ref name="L06"/>
| surface_pressure = {{ublist |class=nowrap |10{{sup |−7}} [[Pascal (unit)|Pa]] (1 [[bar (unit)|picobar]]){{nbsp |2}}{{smaller |(day)}} |10{{sup |−10}} Pa (1 femtobar) {{nbsp |2}}{{smaller |(nicht)}}{{efn |name=pressure explanation}}}}
| atmosphere_composition = {{hlist |[[Helium|He]] |[[Argon|Ar]] |[[Neon|Ne]] |[[Sodium|Na]] |[[Potassium|K]] |[[Hydrogen|H]] |[[Radon|Rn]]}}
}}
The '''Muin''' is an [[Astronomical object|astronomical bouk]] that [[orbit]]s [[planet]] [[Yird]], bein Yird's anerly permanent [[naitural satellite]]. It is [[Leet o Solar Seestem objects bi size#Leet o objects bi radius|the fift-lairgest]] naitural satellite in the [[Solar Seestem]], an the lairgest amang planetar satellites relative tae the size o the planet that it orbits (its [[Primar (astronomy)|primar]]). Follaein [[Jupiter]]'s satellite [[Io (muin)|Io]], the Muin is seicond-[[Density|densest]] satellite amang thae whase densities are kent.

The Muin is thocht tae hae formed aboot 4.51 billion year ago, [[Age o the Yird|nae lang efter Yird]]. The maist widely acceptit explanation is that the Muin formed frae the debris left ower efter a [[giant impact hypothesis|giant impact]] atween Yird an a [[Maurs]]-sized bouk cried [[Theia (planet)|Theia]].

The Muin is in [[tidal lockin|synchronous rotation]] wi Yird, ayeweys shawin the same face, wi its [[near side o the Muin|near side]] merked bi daurk volcanic [[lunar mare|maria]] that fill the spaces atween the bricht auncient crustal hielands an the prominent [[impact crater]]s. As seen frae the Yird, it is the seicont-brichtest regularly veesible [[celestial object]] in Yird's sky, efter the Sun. Its surface is actually daurk, awtho compared tae the nicht sky it appears verra bricht, wi a [[reflectance]] juist slichtly heicher nor that o worn [[Asphalt concrete|asphalt]]. Its gravitational influence produces the [[tide|ocean tides]], [[Yird tide|bouk tides]], an the [[tidal acceleration|slicht lenthenin]] o the day.

The Muin's current [[Lunar distance (astronomy)|orbital distance]] is {{convert|384400|km|abbr=on}},<ref>{{cite web
 |url=http://spaceplace.nasa.gov/moon-distance/en/
 |title=How far away is the moon? :: NASA Space Place
 |publisher=
 |deadurl=no
 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161006220531/http://spaceplace.nasa.gov/moon-distance/en/
 |archivedate=6 October 2016
 |df=dmy-all
 }}</ref><ref>Scott, Elaine. ''Our Moon: New Discoveries About Earth's Closest Companion''. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt (2016) {{ISBN|9780544750586}}. page 7.</ref> or 1.28 licht-seiconts. This is aboot thirty times the diameter o Yird, wi its [[Angular diameter|apparent size]] in the sky awmaist the same as that o the Sun, resultin in the Muin coverin the Sun nearly precisely in tot [[solar eclipse]]. This matchin o apparent veesual size will nae conteena in the faur futur, acause the Muin's distance frae Yird is slawly increasin.

The [[Soviet Union]]'s [[Luna programme]] wis the first tae reach the Muin wi [[unmanned spacecraft|uncrewed spacecraft]] in 1959; the Unitit States' [[NASA]] [[Apollo program]] achieved the anerly crewed missions tae date, beginnin wi the first crewed lunar orbitin mission bi [[Apollo 8]] in 1968, an sax crewed lunar laundins atween 1969 an 1972, wi the first bein [[Apollo 11]]. Thir missions returned [[Muin rock|lunar rocks]] that hae been uised tae develop a [[Geology o the Muin|geological]] unnerstaundin o the Muin's oreegin, [[internal structure o the Moon|internal structur]], an [[geology o the Muin|later history]]. Syne the [[Apollo 17]] mission in 1972, the Muin haes been veesitit anerly bi uncrewed spacecraft.

Athin human cultur, baith the Muin's naitural prominence in the yirdly sky, an its regular cycle o [[lunar phases|phases]] as seen frae the Yird hae providit cultural references an influences for human societies an culturs syne time immemorial. Sic cultural influences can be foond in [[leid]], [[Lunar calendar|lunar based calendar seestems]], [[Muin in feection|airt]], an [[Lunar deity|meethologie]].

==Pheesical chairactereestics==

===Internal structur===
[[File:Moon diagram.svg|thumb|left |Structur o the Muin]]

{|class="wikitable floatright" style="margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;"
 |+ Chemical composeetion o the lunar surface regolith (derived frae crustal rocks)<ref>{{cite book
 |author=Taylor, Stuart Ross
 |title=Lunar science: A post-Apollo view |date=1975
 |page=64 |publisher=[[Pergamon Press]]
 |url=http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu//full/1975lspa.book.....T/0000064.000.html}}</ref><!-- After Turkevich, A.L. (1973) PLC 4:1159; Moon. 8:365. -->
! rowspan="2" |Compoond
! rowspan="2" |Formula
! colspan="2" |Composeetion (wt %)
 |-
! style="font-size: smaller;" |Maria
! style="font-size: smaller;" |Hielands
 |-
 |style="text-align: left;" |[[Seelicon dioxide|seelicae]]
 |SiO<sub>2</sub>
 |45.4%
 |45.5%
 |-
 |style="text-align: left;" |[[Alumeenium oxide|alumina]]
 |Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>
 |14.9%
 |24.0%
 |-
 |style="text-align: left;" |[[Calcium oxide|lime]]
 |CaO
 |11.8%
 |15.9%
 |-
 |style="text-align: left;" |[[airn(II) oxide]]
|FeO
 |14.1%
 |5.9%
 |-
 |style="text-align: left;" |[[Magnesium oxide|magnesia]]
 |MgO
 |9.2%
 |7.5%
 |-
 |style="text-align: left;" |[[titanium dioxide]]
|TiO<sub>2</sub>
 |3.9%
 |0.6%
 |-
 |style="text-align: left;" |[[sodium oxide]]
|Na<sub>2</sub>O
 |0.6%
 |0.6%
 |-
! colspan="2" |Tot
! 99.9%
! 100.0%
 |}

The Muin is a [[planetar differentiation|differentiatit]] bouk: it haes a [[Geochemistry|geochemically]] distinct [[Crust (geology)|crust]], [[Mantle (geology)|mantle]], an [[Planetar core|core]]. The Muin haes a solit airn-rich inner core wi a radius o {{Convert |240 |km |abbr=on}} an a fluid ooter core primarily made o liquid iron wi a radius o aboot {{Convert |300 |km |abbr=on}}. Aroond the core is a pairtially mowten boondary layer wi a radius o aboot {{Convert |500 |km |abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite web|last1= Brown|first1= D.|last2= Anderson|first2= J.|website= NASA|url= http://www.nasa.gov/topics/moonmars/features/lunar_core.html|title= NASA Research Team Reveals Moon Has Earth-Like Core|publisher= [[NASA]]|date= 6 January 2011|deadurl= no|archiveurl= https://www.webcitation.org/66BdXGozx?url=http://www.nasa.gov/topics/moonmars/features/lunar_core.html|archivedate= 2012-03-15|df= dmy-all|access-date= 2017-08-22|url-status= live}}</ref><ref name="Weber2011">{{cite journal|last1= Weber|first1= R. C.|last2= Lin|first2= P.-Y.|last3= Garnero|first3= E. J.|last4= Williams|first4= Q.|last5= Lognonne|first5= P.|title= Seismic Detection of the Lunar Core|journal= Science|volume= 331|issue= 6015|date= 2011-01-21|pages= 309–312|url= http://www.earth.northwestern.edu/people/seth/351/lunarcore.2011.pdf|doi= 10.1126/science.1199375|pmid= 21212323|deadurl= no|archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20151015035756/http://www.earth.northwestern.edu/people/seth/351/lunarcore.2011.pdf|archivedate= 15 October 2015|df= dmy-all}}</ref> This structur is thocht tae hae developed throu the [[Fractional creestallisation (geology)|fractional creestallisation]] o a global [[lunar magma ocean|magma ocean]] shortly efter the Muin's formation 4.5&nbsp;billion year ago.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/ngeo417 |title=Timing of crystallization of the lunar magma ocean constrained by the oldest zircon |date=2009 |last1=Nemchin |first1=A. |last2=Timms |first2=N. |last3=Pidgeon |first3=R. |last4=Geisler |first4=T. |last5=Reddy |first5=S. |last6=Meyer |first6=C. |journal=[[Nature Geoscience]] |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=133–136 |bibcode=2009NatGe...2..133N}}</ref>
Creestallisation o this magma ocean wad hae creatit a [[mafic]] mantle frae the [[Precipitation (chemistry)|precipitation]] an sinkin o the minerals [[olivine]], [[clinopyroxene]], an [[orthopyroxene]]; efter aboot three-quarters o the magma ocean haed creestallised, lawer-density [[plagioclase]] meenerals coud form an fleet intae a crust atap.<ref name="S06" /> The feenal liquids tae crystallise wad hae been ineetially sandwiched atween the crust an mantle, wi a heich abundance o [[Compatibility (geochemistry)|incompatible]] an heat-producin elements.<ref name="W06" />
Conseestent wi this perspective, geochemical mappin made frae orbit suggests the crust o maistly [[anorthosite]].<ref name="L06" /> The [[Muin rock]] samples o the fluid lavas that erupted ontae the surface frae pairtial meltin in the mantle confirm the mafic mantle composeetion, that is mair airn rich nor that o Yird.<ref name="W06" />
The crust is on average aboot {{Convert|50 |km |abbr=on}} thick.<ref name="W06" />

The Muin is the seicont-densest satellite in the Solar Seestem, efter [[Io (muin)|Io]].<ref name="Schubert2004" /> Houiver, the inner core o the Muin is smaw, wi a radius o aboot {{Convert |350 |km |abbr=on}} or less,<ref name="W06" /> aroond 20% o the radius o the Muin. Its composeetion is nae well defined, but is probably metallic airn alloyed wi a smaw amoont o [[sulfur]] an nickel; analyses o the Muin's time-variable rotation suggest that it is at least pairtly mowten.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Williams |first=J. G. |last2=Turyshev |first2=S. G. |last3=Boggs |first3=D. H. |last4=Ratcliff |first4=J. T. |title=Lunar laser ranging science: Gravitational physics and lunar interior and geodesy |journal=[[Advances in Space Research]] |date=2006 |volume=37 |issue=1 |pages=67–71 |bibcode=2006AdSpR..37...67W |doi=10.1016/j.asr.2005.05.013 |arxiv=gr-qc/0412049}}</ref>

===Surface geology===

[[File:MoonTopoLOLA.png|thumb|alt=Topografie o the Moon meisurt frae the Lunar Orbiter Laser Altimeter on the mission [[Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter]], referenced tae a sphere o radius 1737.4&nbsp;km|Topografie o the Muin]]

The [[topografie o the Muin]] haes been meisurt wi [[laser altimetry]] an [[stereoscopy|stereo eemage analysis]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=Topography of the South Polar Region from Clementine Stereo Imaging |author1=Spudis, Paul D.|author2=Cook, A.|author3=Robinson, M.|author4=Bussey, B.|author5=Fessler, B. |bibcode=1998nvmi.conf...69S |journal=Workshop on New Views of the Moon: Integrated Remotely Sensed, Geophysical, and Sample Datasets |page=69 |date=January 1998}}</ref> Its maist veesible [[Leet o featurs on the Muin|topografic featur]] is the giant far-side [[Sooth Pole–Aitken basin]], some {{Convert|2240 |km |abbr=on}} in diameter, the lairgest crater on the Muin an the seicont-lairgest confirmed impact [[Leet o lairgest craters in the Solar Seestem|crater in the Solar Seestem]].<ref name="Spudis1994" /><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1029/97GL01718 |first1=C.M. |last1=Pieters |first2=S. |last2=Tompkins |first3=J.W. |last3=Head |first4=P.C. |last4=Hess |title=Mineralogy of the Mafic Anomaly in the South Pole‐Aitken Basin: Implications for excavation of the lunar mantle |journal=[[Geophysical Research Letters]] |volume=24 |issue=15 |pages=1903–1906 |date=1997 |bibcode=1997GeoRL..24.1903P}}</ref> At {{Convert |13 |km |abbr=on}} deep, its fluir is the lawest pynt on the surface o the Muin.<ref name="Spudis1994" /><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.psrd.hawaii.edu/July98/spa.html |title=The Biggest Hole in the Solar System |last=Taylor |first=G.J. |date=17 July 1998 |work=Planetary Science Research Discoveries |publisher=[[Hawai'i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology]] |accessdate=12 April 2007 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070820042129/http://www.psrd.hawaii.edu/July98/spa.html |archivedate=20 August 2007 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> The heichest elevations o the Muin's surface are locatit directly tae the northeast, an it haes been suggestit micht hae been thickened bi the oblique formation impact o the Sooth Pole–Aitken basin.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Schultz |first=P. H. |date=March 1997 |page=1259 |volume=28 |title=Forming the south-pole Aitken basin – The extreme games |journal=Conference Paper, 28th Annual Lunar and Planetary Science Conference |bibcode=1997LPI....28.1259S}}</ref> Ither lairge impact basins, sic as [[Mare Imbrium|Imbrium]], [[Mare Serenitatis|Serenitatis]], [[Mare Crisium|Crisium]], [[Mare Smythii|Smythii]], an [[Mare Orientale|Orientale]], an aa possess regionally law elevations an elevatit rims.<ref name="Spudis1994" /> The faur side o the lunar surface is on average aboot {{Convert |1.9 |km |abbr=on}} heicher nor that o the near side.<ref name="W06" />

The discovery o [[faut scarp]] cliffs bi the [[Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter]] suggest that the Muin haes scrinkit athin the past billion year, bi aboot 90 metres (300&nbsp;ft).<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[NASA]]|title=NASA's LRO Reveals 'Incredible Shrinking Moon'|date=19 August 2010|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/LRO/news/shrinking-moon.html|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100821124252/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/LRO/news/shrinking-moon.html|archivedate=21 August 2010|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Seemilar scrinkage featurs exist on [[Mercur (planet)|Mercur]].

====Volcanic featurs====
[[File:Moon names.svg|thumb |[[Near side of the Moon|Lunar nearside]] wi [[Lunar mare|major maria]] an [[Lunar craters|craters]] labeled |alt=Lunar nearside wi major maria an craters labeled]]

The daurk an relatively featurless lunar plains, clearly seen wi the nakit ee, are cried ''[[lunar mare|maria]]'' ([[Laitin leid|Latiin]] for "seas"; seengular ''mare''), as thay war ance believed tae be filled wi watter;<ref>{{cite book |author=Wlasuk, Peter |title=Observing the Moon |url=https://books.google.com/?id=TWtLIOlPwS4C |date=2000 |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]] |isbn=978-1-85233-193-1 |page=19}}</ref> thay are nou kent tae be vast solitifee'd puils o auncient [[basalt]]ic lava. Awtho seemilar tae terrestrial basalts, lunar basalts hae mair airn an no minerals altered bi watter.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.psrd.hawaii.edu/April04/lunarAnorthosites.html |title=The Oldest Moon Rocks |last=Norman |first=M. |work=Planetary Science Research Discoveries |publisher=[[Hawai'i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology]] |date=21 April 2004 |accessdate=12 April 2007 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070418152325/http://www.psrd.hawaii.edu/April04/lunarAnorthosites.html |archivedate=18 April 2007 |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Varricchio |first=L. |title=Inconstant Moon |date=2006 |publisher=[[Xlibris Books]] |isbn=978-1-59926-393-9}}</ref> The majority o thir lavas eruptit or flawed intae the depressions associatit wi [[impact crater|impact basins]]. Several [[geologic province]]s conteenin [[shield volcano]]es an volcanic [[lunar dome|domes]] are foond within the near side "maria".<ref>{{cite journal |last=Head |first=L.W.J.W. |title=Lunar Gruithuisen and Mairan domes: Rheology and mode of emplacement |journal=[[Journal of Geophysical Research]] |date=2003 |volume=108 |url=http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/2003/2002JE001909.shtml |accessdate=12 April 2007 |issue=E2 |doi=10.1029/2002JE001909 |page=5012 |bibcode=2003JGRE..108.5012W |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070312071105/http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/2003/2002JE001909.shtml |archivedate=12 March 2007 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>

[[File:14284-Moon-Maskelyne-LRO-20141012.jpg|thumb |150px |left |Evidence of [[Irregular mare patch|young lunar volcanism]]]]

Awmaist aw maria are on the near side o the Muin, an civer 31% o the surface o the near side,<ref name="worldbook" /> compared wi 2% o the faur side.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gillis |first1=J.J. |last2=Spudis |first2=P.D. |title=The Composition and Geologic Setting of Lunar Far Side Maria |journal=[[Lunar and Planetary Science]] |date=1996 |volume=27 |pages=413 |bibcode=1996LPI....27..413G}}</ref> This is thocht tae be due tae a [[KREEP|concentration o heat-producin elements]] unner the crust on the near side, seen on geochemical maps obteened bi ''[[Lunar Prospector]]'''s gamma-ray spectrometer, that wad hae caused the unnerleein mantle tae heat up, pairtially melt, rise tae the surface an erupt.<ref name="S06" /><ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/281/5382/1484 |title=Global Elemental Maps of the Moon: The Lunar Prospector Gamma-Ray Spectrometer |author=Lawrence |journal=[[Science (jurnal)|Science]] |volume=281 |issue=5382 |pages=1484–1489 |doi=10.1126/science.281.5382.1484 |date=11 August 1998 |accessdate=29 August 2009 |pmid=9727970 |bibcode=1998Sci...281.1484L |name-list-format=vanc |author2=D. J. |display-authors=2 |last3=Barraclough |first3=BL |last4=Binder |first4=AB |last5=Elphic |first5=RC |last6=Maurice |first6=S |last7=Thomsen |first7=DR |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090516065007/http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/281/5382/1484 |archivedate=16 May 2009 |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.psrd.hawaii.edu/Aug00/newMoon.html |title=A New Moon for the Twenty-First Century |last=Taylor |first=G.J. |work=Planetary Science Research Discoveries |publisher=[[Hawai'i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology]] |date=31 August 2000 |accessdate=12 April 2007 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/66BdZ4zPb?url=http://www.psrd.hawaii.edu/Aug00/newMoon.html |archivedate=2012-03-15 |df=dmy-all |url-status=live }}</ref> Maist o the Muin's [[lunar mare|mare basalts]] eruptit in the Imbrian period, 3.0–3.5&nbsp;billion year aby, awtho some radiometrically datit samples are as auld as 4.2&nbsp;billion year.<ref name="Papike" /> Till recently, the youngest eruptions, datit bi [[crater coontin]], appeared tae hae been anly 1.2&nbsp;billion year aby.<ref name="Hiesinger" /> In 2006, a study o [[Ina (crater)|Ina]], a tottie depression in [[Lacus Felicitatis]], foond jagged, relatively dust-free featurs that, due tae the lack o erosion bi infawin debris, appeared tae be anly 2 million year auld.<ref name=Berardelli>{{cite web |url=http://news.sciencemag.org/2006/11/long-live-moon |title=Long Live the Moon! |publisher=[[Science (jurnal)|Science]] |date=9 November 2006 |author=Phil Berardelli |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018153016/http://news.sciencemag.org/2006/11/long-live-moon |archivedate=18 October 2014 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> [[Muinquake]]s an releases o gas an aa indicate some continued lunar acteevity.<ref name=Berardelli /> In 2014 NASA annoonced "widespread evidence o young lunar volcanism" at 70 [[irregular mare patch]]es identifee'd bi the [[Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter]], some less nor 50 million year auld. This raises the possibeelity o a muckle wairmer lunar mantle nor previously believed, at least on the near side whaur the deep crust is substantially waurmer due tae the greater concentration o radioactive elements.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://news.discovery.com/space/imps-reveal-volcanoes-erupted-recently-on-the-moon-141014.htm |title=Volcanoes Erupted 'Recently' on the Moon |publisher=[[Discovery News]] |date=14 October 2014 |author=Jason Major |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141016190653/http://news.discovery.com/space/imps-reveal-volcanoes-erupted-recently-on-the-moon-141014.htm |archivedate=16 October 2014 |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/press/2014/october/nasa-mission-finds-widespread-evidence-of-young-lunar-volcanism/#.VDxNw0t3uxo |title=NASA Mission Finds Widespread Evidence of Young Lunar Volcanism |publisher=[[NASA]] |date=12 October 2014 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150103095208/http://www.nasa.gov/press/2014/october/nasa-mission-finds-widespread-evidence-of-young-lunar-volcanism/#.VDxNw0t3uxo |archivedate=3 January 2015 |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://news.sciencemag.org/space/2014/10/recent-volcanic-eruptions-moon |title=Recent volcanic eruptions on the moon |publisher=[[Science (jurnal)|Science]] |date=12 October 2014 |author=Eric Hand |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141014092239/http://news.sciencemag.org/space/2014/10/recent-volcanic-eruptions-moon |archivedate=14 October 2014 |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.nature.com/ngeo/journal/vaop/ncurrent/full/ngeo2252.html |title=Evidence for basaltic volcanism on the Moon within the past 100 million years |journal=[[Nature Geoscience]] | last1 = Braden| first1 = S. E.| last2 = Stopar| first2 = J. D.| last3 = Robinson| first3 = M. S.| last4 = Lawrence| first4 = S. J.| last5 = van der Bogert| first5 = C. H.| last6 = Hiesinger| first6 = H.doi=10.1038/ngeo2252 |volume=7 |pages=787–791 |bibcode=2014NatGe...7..787B | doi=10.1038/ngeo2252}}</ref> Juist prior tae this, evidence haes been presentit for 2–10 million years younger basaltic volcanism inside Lowell crater,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Srivastava |first1=N. |last2=Gupta |first2=R.P. |year=2013 |title=Young viscous flows in the Lowell crater of Orientale basin, Moon: Impact melts or volcanic eruptions? |url= |journal=[[Planetary and Space Science]] |volume=87 |issue= |pages=37–45 |doi=10.1016/j.pss.2013.09.001 |bibcode=2013P&SS...87...37S}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gupta |first1=R.P. |last2=Srivastava |first2=N. |last3=Tiwari |first3=R.K. |year=2014 |title=Evidences of relatively new volcanic flows on the Moon |url= |journal=[[Current Science]] |volume=107 |issue=3 |pages=454–460}}</ref> Orientale basin, locatit in the transeetion zone atween the near an faur sides o the Muin. An ineetially hetter mantle and/or local enrichment o heat-producin elements in the mantle coud be responsible for prolanged acteevities an aa on the faur side in the Orientale basin.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Whitten |first1=J. |display-authors=etal |year=2011 |title=Lunar mare deposits associated with the Orientale impact basin: New insights into mineralogy, history, mode of emplacement, and relation to Orientale Basin evolution from Moon Mineralogy Mapper (M3) data from Chandrayaan-1 |url= |journal=[[Journal of Geophysical Research]] |volume=116 |issue= |page=E00G09 |doi=10.1029/2010JE003736 |bibcode=2011JGRE..116.0G09W}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cho |first1=Y. |display-authors=etal |year=2012 |title=Young mare volcanism in the Orientale region contemporary with the Procellarum KREEP Terrane (PKT) volcanism peak period 2 b. y. ago |url= |journal=[[Geophysical Research Letters]] |volume=39 |issue= |page=L11203}}</ref>

The lichter-coloured regions o the Muin are cried ''terrae'', or mair commonly ''highlands'', acause thay are heicher nor maist maria. Thay hae been radiometrically datit tae haein formed 4.4&nbsp;billion year aby, an mey represent [[plagioclase]] [[Cumulate rock|cumulates]] o the [[lunar magma ocean]].<ref name="Papike" /><ref name="Hiesinger" /> In contrast tae Yird, na major lunar moontains are believed tae hae formed as a result o tectonic events.<ref>{{cite web|last=Munsell |first=K. |publisher=[[NASA]] |work=Solar System Exploration |title=Majestic Mountains |url=http://sse.jpl.nasa.gov/educ/themes/display.cfm?Item=mountains |date=4 December 2006 |accessdate=12 April 2007 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080917055643/http://sse.jpl.nasa.gov/educ/themes/display.cfm?Item=mountains |archivedate=17 September 2008 |df= }}</ref>

The concentration o maria on the Near Side likely reflects the substantially thicker crust o the helands o the Faur Side, that mey hae formed in a slaw-velocity impact o a seicont muin o Yird a few tens o millions o years efter thair formation.<ref>{{cite web |author=Richard Lovett |url=http://www.nature.com/news/2011/110803/full/news.2011.456.html#B1 |title=Early Earth may have had two moons : Nature News |publisher=[[Nature (jurnal)|Nature]] |accessdate=1 November 2012 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121103145236/http://www.nature.com/news/2011/110803/full/news.2011.456.html#B1 |archivedate=3 November 2012 |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://theconversation.edu.au/was-our-two-faced-moon-in-a-small-collision-2659 |title=Was our two-faced moon in a small collision? |publisher=Theconversation.edu.au |accessdate=1 November 2012 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130130004522/http://theconversation.edu.au/was-our-two-faced-moon-in-a-small-collision-2659 |archivedate=30 January 2013 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>

====Impact craters====
[[File:Moon-craters.jpg|thumb|right|alt=A gray, mony-ridged surface frae heich abuin. The lairgest featur is a circular rainged structur wi heich wawed sides an a lawer central peak: the entire surface oot tae the horizon is filled wi seemilar structurs that are smawer an owerlappin.|Lunar crater [[Daedalus (crater)|Daedalus]] on the [[Faur side o the Muin|Muin's faur side]]]]

The ither major geologic process that haes affectit the Muin's surface is [[impact crater]]in,<ref>{{cite book|last=Melosh |first=H. J. |title=Impact cratering: A geologic process |url=https://archive.org/details/impactcrateringg0000melo |date=1989 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-504284-9}}</ref> wi craters formed whan asteroids an comets collide wi the lunar surface. Thare are estimatit tae be aboot 300,000 craters wider nor {{Convert |1 |km |4=1 |abbr=on}} on the Muin's near side alane.<ref>{{cite web |title=Moon Facts |url=http://planck.esa.int/science-e/www/object/index.cfm?fobjectid=31412 |work=SMART-1 |publisher=[[European Space Agency]] |date=2010 |accessdate=12 May 2010}}</ref> The [[lunar geologic timescale]] is based on the maist prominent impact events, includin [[Nectarian|Nectaris]], [[Lower Imbrian|Imbrium]], an [[Mare Orientale|Orientale]], structurs chairacterised bi multiple raings o upliftit material, atween hunders an thoosands o kilometres in diameter an associatit wi a braid apron o ejecta deposits that form a regional [[stratigraphy|stratigraphic horizon]].<ref name="geologic" /> The lack o an atmosphere, wather an recent geological processes mean that mony o thir craters are well-preserved. Awtho anly a few multi-raing basins hae been definitively datit, thay are uisefu for assignin relative ages. Acause impact craters accumulate at a nearly constant rate, coontin the nummer o craters per unit area can be uised tae estimate the age o the surface.<ref name="geologic" /> The radiometric ages o impact-meltit rocks collectit in the [[Apollo missions]] cluster atween 3.8 an 4.1&nbsp;billion year auld: this haes been uised tae propone a [[Late Heavy Bombardment]] o impacts.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Hartmann |first=William K. |last2=Quantin |first2=Cathy |last3=Mangold |first3=Nicolas |date=2007 |volume=186 |issue=1 |pages=11–23 |journal=[[Icarus (jurnal)|Icarus]] |title=Possible long-term decline in impact rates: 2. Lunar impact-melt data regarding impact history |doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2006.09.009 |postscript=<!--None--> |bibcode=2007Icar..186...11H}}</ref>

Blanketit on tap o the Muin's crust is a heichly [[Comminution|comminutit]] (breuken intae ever smawer particles) an [[impact gairdenin|impact gairdened]] surface layer cried [[regolith]], formed bi impact processes. The finer regolith, the [[lunar sile]] o [[seelicon dioxide]] gless, haes a textur resemblin snaw an a scent resemblin spent [[gunpouder]].<ref>{{cite web |date=30 January 2006 |accessdate=15 March 2010 |url=https://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2006/30jan_smellofmoondust.htm |title=The Smell of Moondust |publisher=[[NASA]] |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100308112332/http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2006/30jan_smellofmoondust.htm |archivedate=8 March 2010 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> The regolith o aulder surfaces is generally thicker than for younger surfaces: it varies in thickness frae {{Convert|10 |- |20 |km |abbr=on}} in the hielands an {{Convert |3 |- |5 |km |abbr=on}} in the maria.<ref>{{cite book |last=Heiken |first=G. |editor1-last=Vaniman |editor1-first=D. |editor2-last=French |editor2-first=B. |title=Lunar Sourcebook, a user's guide to the Moon |url=https://archive.org/details/lunarsourcebooku00heik |date=1991 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |location=New York |isbn=978-0-521-33444-0 |page=[https://archive.org/details/lunarsourcebooku00heik/page/n774 736]}}</ref>
Beneath the finely comminuted regolith layer is the ''megaregolith'', a layer o heichly fractured bedrock mony kilometres thick.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Rasmussen |first=K.L. |author2=Warren, P.H. |title=Megaregolith thickness, heat flow, and the bulk composition of the Moon |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_1985-01-10_313_5998/page/n53 |journal=[[Nature (jurnal)|Nature]] |date=1985 |volume=313 |issue=5998 |pages=121–124 |bibcode=1985Natur.313..121R |doi=10.1038/313121a0}}</ref>

Comparison o heich-resolution eemages obteened bi the [[Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter]] haes shawn a contemporary crater-production rate signeeficantly heicher nor previously estimatit. A seicontar craterin process caused bi [[Ejecta blanket|distal ejecta]] is thocht tae churn the tap twa centimetres o regolith a hunder times mair quickly nor previous models suggestit{{ndash}}on a timescale o 81,000 year.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/2108929-the-moon-has-hundreds-more-craters-than-we-thought/ |title=The moon has hundreds more craters than we thought |first=Rebecca |last=Boyle |publisher= |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161013143743/https://www.newscientist.com/article/2108929-the-moon-has-hundreds-more-craters-than-we-thought/ |archivedate=13 October 2016 |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v538/n7624/full/nature19829.html |title=Quantifying crater production and regolith overturn on the Moon with temporal imaging |first1=Emerson J. |last1=Speyerer |first2=Reinhold Z. |last2=Povilaitis |first3=Mark S. |last3=Robinson |first4=Peter C. |last4=Thomas |first5=Robert V. |last5=Wagner |date=13 October 2016 |publisher= |journal=[[Nature (jurnal)|Nature]] |volume=538 |issue=7624 |pages=215–218 |via=www.nature.com |doi=10.1038/nature19829 |pmid=27734864}}</ref>

[[File:Reiner-gamma-clem1.jpg|thumb|200px|Lunar swirls at [[Reiner Gamma]]]]

====Lunar swirls====
Lunar swirls are enigmatic featurs foond across the Muin's surface, which are chairacterised bi a heich albedo, appearin optically immatur (i.e. the optical chairactereestics o a relatively young regolith), an eften displayin a sinuous shape. Thair curvilinear shape is eften accentuated bi law albedo regions that wind atween the bricht swirls.

====Presence o watter====
Liquid watter canna persist on the lunar surface. Whan exposed tae solar radiation, watter quickly decompones throu a process kent as [[photodissociation]] an is lost tae space. Houiver, syne the 1960s, scientists hae hypothesized that watter ice mey be depositit bi impactin [[comets]] or possibly produced bi the reaction o oxygen-rich lunar rocks, an hydrogen frae [[solar wind]], leavin traces o watter that coud possibly survive in cauld, permanently shaidaed craters at aither pole on the Muin.<ref name="Margot1999" /><ref>
 {{cite journal
|first=William R. |last=Ward
 |title=Past Orientation of the Lunar Spin Axis
 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1975-08-01_189_4200/page/377 |journal=[[Science (jurnal)|Science]]
 |date=1 August 1975
 |volume=189
 |issue=4200 |pages=377–379
 |doi=10.1126/science.189.4200.377
 |pmid=17840827
 |bibcode=1975Sci...189..377W}}

</ref> Computer simulations suggest that up tae {{Convert |14000 |km2 |abbr=on}} o the surface mey be in permanent shaidae.<ref name="M03" /> The presence o uisable quantities o watter on the Muin is an important factor in renderin [[Colonisation o the Moon|lunar habitation]] as a cost-effective plan; the alternative o transportin watter frae Yird wad be prohibitively expensive.<ref name="seedhouse2009" />

In years syne, seegnaturs o watter hae been foond tae exeest on the lunar surface.<ref name="moonwater_18032010" /> In 1994, the [[Clementine mission#Bistatic Radar Experiment|bistatic radar experiment]] locatit on the ''[[Clementine (spacecraft)|Clementine]]'' spacecraft, indicatit the existence o smaw, frozen pockets o watter close tae the surface. Houiver, later radar observations bi [[Arecibo Observatory|Arecibo]], suggest thir findings mey rather be rocks ejectit frae young impact craters.<ref>{{cite web |last=Spudis |first=P. |title=Ice on the Moon |url=http://www.thespacereview.com/article/740/1 |publisher=[[The Space Review]] |date=6 November 2006 |accessdate=12 April 2007 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070222083000/http://www.thespacereview.com/article/740/1 |archivedate=22 February 2007 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> In 1998, the [[Lunar Prospector#Neutron Spectrometer (NS)|neutron spectrometer]] on the ''Lunar Prospector'' spacecraft shawed that heich concentrations o hydrogen are present in the first meter o deepth in the regolith near the polar regions.<ref name="Feldman1998" /> Volcanic lava beads, brocht back tae Yird abuird Apollo 15, shawed smaw amounts o watter in thair interior.<ref name="Saal2008" />

The 2008 ''[[Chandrayaan-1]]'' spacecraft haes syne confirmed the existence o surface watter ice, uisin the on-buird [[Moon Mineralogy Mapper]]. The spectrometer observed absorption lines common tae [[hydroxyl]], in reflected sunlicht, providin evidence o lairge quantities o watter ice, on the lunar surface. The spacecraft shawed that concentrations mey possibly be as heich as 1,000&nbsp;[[pairts per million|ppm]].<ref name="Pieters2009" /> In 2009, ''[[LCROSS]]'' sent a {{Convert|2300 |kg |abbr=on}} impactor intae a permanently shaidaed polar crater, an detectit at least {{Convert |100 |kg |abbr=on}} o watter in a plume o ejectit material.<ref name="Planetary" /><ref name="Colaprete" /> Anither examination o the LCROSS data shawed the amoont o detectit watter tae be closer tae {{Convert |155 |± |12 |kg |abbr=on}}.<ref name="Colaprete2010" />

In Mey 2011, 615–1410 ppm watter in [[melt inclusions]] in lunar saumple 74220 wis reportit,<ref name="hauri" /> the famous heich-titanium "orange gless sile" o volcanic oreegin collectit during the [[Apollo 17]] mission in 1972. The inclusions war formed in explosive eruptions on the Muin approximately 3.7 billion year aby. This concentration is comparable wi that o magma in Yird's [[upper mantle]]. Awtho o considerable selenological interest, this announcement affords little comfort tae wad-be lunar colonists—the sample oreeginatit mony kilometres ablo the surface, an the inclusions are sae difficult tae access that it teuk 39 year tae find them wi a state-o-the-airt ion microprobe instrument.

===Gravitational field===
The gravitational field o the Muin haes been meisurt throu trackin the [[Doppler effect|Doppler shift]] o radio signals emittit bi orbitin spacecraft. The main lunar gravity featurs are [[mass concentration (astronomy)|mascons]], lairge positive gravitational anomalies associatit wi some o the giant [[impact crater|impact basins]], partly caused bi the dense mare basaltic lava flaws that fill thae basins.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Muller |first=P. |author2=Sjogren, W. |title=Mascons: lunar mass concentrations |journal=[[Science (jurnal)|Science]] |volume=161 |pages=680–684 |date=1968 |doi=10.1126/science.161.3842.680 |pmid=17801458 |issue=3842 |bibcode=1968Sci...161..680M}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |journal=[[Science (jurnal)|Science]] |author=Richard A. Kerr |title=The Mystery of Our Moon's Gravitational Bumps Solved? |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2013-04-12_340_6129/page/138 |volume=340 |pages=138–139 |date=12 April 2013 |doi=10.1126/science.340.6129.138-a |pmid=23580504}}</ref> The anomalies greatly influence the orbit o spacecraft aboot the Muin. Thare are some puzzles: lava flaws bi themsels canna expleen aw o the gravitational signatur, an some mascons exist that are nae linked tae mare volcanism.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Konopliv |first=A. |author2=Asmar, S. |author3=Carranza, E. |author4=Sjogren, W. |author5=Yuan, D. |title=Recent gravity models as a result of the Lunar Prospector mission |journal=[[Icarus (jurnal)|Icarus]] |volume=50 |issue=1 |pages=1–18 |date=2001 |doi=10.1006/icar.2000.6573 |bibcode=2001Icar..150....1K}}</ref>

===Magnetic field===
The Muin haes a freemit [[magnetic field]] o aboot 1–100 [[Tesla (unit)|nanoteslas]], less nor ane-hundert [[Yird's magnetic field|that o Yird]]. It daes nae currently hae a global [[dipole|dipolar]] magnetic field an anly haes crustal magnetisation, probably acquired early in lunar history whan a dynamo wis still operatin.<ref name="GB2009" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://lunar.arc.nasa.gov/results/magelres.htm |publisher=[[Lunar Prospector]] (NASA) |title=Magnetometer / Electron Reflectometer Results |date=2001 |accessdate=17 March 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100527121330/http://lunar.arc.nasa.gov/results/magelres.htm |archivedate=27 May 2010 |df= }}</ref> Alternatively, some o the remnant magnetization mey be frae transient magnetic fields generatit in lairge impact events throu the expansion o an impact-generatit plasma clood in the presence o an ambient magnetic field. This is supportit bi the apparent location o the lairgest crustal magnetisations near the [[antipodes]] o the giant impact basins.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Hood |first=L.L. |author2=Huang, Z. |title=Formation of magnetic anomalies antipodal to lunar impact basins: Two-dimensional model calculations |journal=[[Journal of Geophysical Research]] |volume=96 |issue=B6 |pages=9837–9846 |date=1991 |doi=10.1029/91JB00308 |bibcode=1991JGR....96.9837H}}</ref>

===Atmosphere===
[[File:Apollo 17 twilight ray sketch.jpg|thumb|upright |Sketch bi the Apollo 17 astronauts. The lunar atmosphere wis later studied bi [[LADEE]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2005/07dec_moonstorms/ |title=Moon Storms |publisher=[[NASA]] |date=27 September 2013 |accessdate=3 October 2013 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130912092057/http://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2005/07dec_moonstorms/ |archivedate=12 September 2013 |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/ladee/main/#.VXCc0vBdiM8 |title=LADEE - Lunar Atmosphere Dust and Environment Explorer |first=Jessica |last=Culler |date=16 June 2015 |publisher= |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150408015242/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/ladee/main/#.VXCc0vBdiM8 |archivedate=8 April 2015 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>]]
The Muin haes an atmosphere sae tenuous as tae be nearly [[vacuum]], wi a tot mass o less nor {{Convert|10 |MT}}.<ref>{{cite book |editor=Richard D. Johnson & Charles Holbrow |last=Globus |first=Ruth |title=Space Settlements: A Design Study |chapter=Chapter 5, Appendix J: Impact Upon Lunar Atmosphere |publisher=[[NASA]] |url=http://settlement.arc.nasa.gov/75SummerStudy/5appendJ.html |date=1977 |accessdate=17 March 2010 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100531205037/http://settlement.arc.nasa.gov/75SummerStudy/5appendJ.html |archivedate=31 May 2010 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> The surface pressur o this smaw mass is aroond 3 × 10<sup>−15</sup>&nbsp;[[Atmosphere (unit)|atm]] (0.3&nbsp;[[nanopascal|nPa]]); it varies wi the lunar day. Its soorces include [[ootgassin]] an [[sputterin]], a product o the bombardment o lunar sile bi [[solar wind]] ions.<ref name="L06" /><ref>{{cite journal |last=Crotts |first=Arlin P.S. |title=Lunar Outgassing, Transient Phenomena and The Return to The Moon, I: Existing Data |date=2008 |url=http://www.astro.columbia.edu/~arlin/TLP/paper1.pdf |bibcode=2008ApJ...687..692C |volume=687 |pages=692–705 |journal=[[The Astrophysical Journal]] |doi=10.1086/591634 |arxiv=0706.3949 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090220081142/http://www.astro.columbia.edu/~arlin/TLP/paper1.pdf |archivedate=20 February 2009 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Elements that hae been detectit include [[sodium]] an [[potassium]], produced bi sputterin (an aa foond in the atmospheres o [[Mercur (planet)|Mercur]] an [[Io (muin)|Io]]); [[helium-4]] an [[neon]]<ref name="NASA-20150817">{{cite web |last=Steigerwald |first=William |title=NASA's LADEE Spacecraft Finds Neon in Lunar Atmosphere |url=http://www.nasa.gov/content/goddard/ladee-lunar-neon |date=17 August 2015 |work=[[NASA]] |accessdate=18 August 2015 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150819035151/http://www.nasa.gov/content/goddard/ladee-lunar-neon/ |archivedate=19 August 2015 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> frae the solar wind; an [[Argon|argon-40]], [[Radon|radon-222]], an [[polonium-210]], ootgassed efter thair creaution bi [[radioactive decay]] within the crust an mantle.<ref name="Stern1999" /><ref>{{cite journal|last=Lawson |first=S. |author2=Feldman, W. |author3=Lawrence, D. |author4=Moore, K. |author5=Elphic, R. |author6=Belian, R. |title=Recent outgassing from the lunar surface: the Lunar Prospector alpha particle spectrometer |journal=[[Journal of Geophysical Research]] |volume=110 |issue=E9 |page=1029 |date=2005 |doi=10.1029/2005JE002433 |bibcode=2005JGRE..11009009L}}</ref> The absence o sic neutral species (atoms or molecules) as [[oxygen]], [[nitrogen]], [[carbon]], [[hydrogen]] an [[magnesium]], that are present in the [[regolith]], is nae unnerstuid.<ref name="Stern1999" /> Watter vapour haes been detectit bi ''[[Chandrayaan-1]]'' an foond tae vary wi latitude, wi a maximum at ~60–70&nbsp;degrees; it is possibly generatit frae the [[sublimation (chemistry)|sublimation]] o watter ice in the regolith.<ref name="Sridharan2010" /> Thir gases aither return intae the regolith due tae the Muin's gravity or are lost tae space, aither throu solar radiation pressur or, if thay are ionized, bi bein swept awey bi the solar wind's magnetic field.<ref name="Stern1999" />

====Dist====
A permanent asymmetric [[muin dist]] clood exists aroond the Muin, creatit bi smaw particles frae [[comets]]. Estimates are 5 tons o comet pairticles strike the Muin's surface ilk 24 oors. The pairticles strike the Muin's surface ejectin muin dist abuin the Muin. The dist stays abuin the Muin approximately 10 meenits, takkin 5 minutes tae rise, an 5 minutes tae faw. On average, 120 kilogrammes o dist are present abuin the Muin, rising tae 100 kilometers abuin the surface. The dist meisurments war made bi [[Lunar Atmosphere and Dust Environment Explorer|LADEE]]'s Lunar Dust EXperiment (LDEX), atween 20 an 100 kilometres abuin the surface, in a sax-month period. LDEX detectit an average o ane 0.3 micrometer muin dist pairticle ilk meenit. Dist pairticle coonts peaked during the [[Geminids|Geminid]], [[Quadrantids|Quadrantid]], [[Taurids|Northren Taurid]], an [[Omicron Centaurids|Omicron Centaurid]] [[meteor shawer]]s, whan the Yird, an Muin, pass throu comet debris. The clood is asymmetric, mair dense near the boondary atween the Muin's dayside an nichtside.<ref>{{cite web |title=Lopsided Cloud of Dust Discovered Around the Moon |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2015/06/150617-moon-dust-cloud-comet-space |website=National Geographic News |accessdate=20 June 2015 |first=Nadia |last=Drake |first2=National Geographic PUBLISHED June |last2=17 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150619052915/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2015/06/150617-moon-dust-cloud-comet-space/ |archivedate=19 June 2015 |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |title=A permanent, asymmetric dust cloud around the Moon |url=http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v522/n7556/full/nature14479.html |journal=[[Nature (jurnal)|Nature]] |date=18 June 2015 |pages=324–326 |volume=522 |issue=7556 |doi=10.1038/nature14479 |first=M. |last=Horányi |first2=J. R. |last2=Szalay |first3=S. |last3=Kempf |first4=J. |last4=Schmidt |first5=E. |last5=Grün |first6=R. |last6=Srama |first7=Z. |last7=Sternovsky |bibcode=2015Natur.522..324H |pmid=26085272}}</ref>

===Saisons===
The Muin's [[axial tilt]] wi respect tae the [[ecliptic]] is anly 1.5424°,<ref name="SolarViews" /> muckle less nor the 23.44° o Yird. Acause o this, the Muin's solar illumination varies muckle less wi saison, an topografical details play a crucial role in saisonal effects.<ref name="bbc" /> Frae eemages taken bi ''[[Clementine (spacecraft)|Clementine]]'' in 1994, it appears that fower moontainous regions on the rim o [[Peary (crater)|Peary Crater]] at the Muin's north pole mey remeen illuminatit for the entire [[lunar day]], creautin [[Peak o Eternal Licht|peaks o eternal licht]]. No sic regions exist at the sooth pole. Seemilarly, thare are places that remeen in permanent shaidae at the bottoms o mony polar craters,<ref name="M03" /> an thir dark craters are extremely cauld: ''[[Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter]]'' meisurt the lawest simmer temperaturs in craters at the soothren pole at {{Convert|35 |K |4=0 |abbr=on}}<ref>{{cite web|date=17 September 2009 |url=http://www.diviner.ucla.edu/blog/?p=123 |title=Diviner News |publisher=[[UCLA]] |accessdate=17 March 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100307031354/http://www.diviner.ucla.edu/blog/?p=123 |archivedate=7 March 2010 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> an juist {{Convert |26 |K |4=0 |abbr=on}} close tae the winter solstice in north polar [[Hermite (crater)|Hermite Crater]]. This is the cauldest temperatur in the Solar Seestem iver meosurt bi a spacecraft, caulder oven than the surface o [[Pluto]].<ref name="bbc" /> Average temperaturs o the Muin's surface are reportit, but temperaturs o different areas will vary greatly dependin upon whether thay are in sunlicht or shaidae.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://planetfacts.org/temperature-on-the-moon/ |title=Temperature on the Moon – Surface Temperature of the Moon – PlanetFacts.org |first=Jake |last=Rocheleau |publisher= |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150527194737/http://planetfacts.org/temperature-on-the-moon/ |archivedate=27 May 2015 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>

=={{anchor |Orbit an relationship tae Yird}} Relationship tae Yird==

===Orbit===
[[File:Earth-Moon.PNG|thumb|alt=Yird haes a pronoonced axial tilt; the Muin's orbit is nae perpendicular tae Yird's axis, but lees close tae Yird's orbital plane. |Yird–Muin seestem (schematic)]]
[[File:Dscovrepicmoontransitfull.gif|thumb |[[DSCOVR|DSCOVR satellite]] sees the Muin passin in front o Yird]]

The Muin maks a complete orbit aroond Yird wi respect tae the fixed starns aboot ance ivery 27.3&nbsp;days{{efn |name=orbpd}} (its [[sidereal period]]). Houiver, acause Yird is muivin in its orbit aroond the Sun at the same time, it takes slichtly langer for the Muin tae shaw the same [[lunar phase|phase]] tae Yird, which is aboot 29.5&nbsp;days{{efn |name=synpd}} (its [[synodic period]]).<ref name="worldbook"/> Unlik maist satellites o ither planets, the Muin orbits closer tae the [[ecliptic plane]] nor tae the planet's [[equatorial plane]]. The Muin's orbit is subtly [[perturbation (astronomy)|perturbed]] bi the Sun an Yird in mony smaw, complex an interactin weys. For ensaumple, the plane o the Muin's orbit [[lunar staundstill|gradually rotates]] ance ivery 18.61<ref>[http://research-repository.uwa.edu.au/en/publications/global-influences-of-the-1861-year-nodal-cycle-and-885-year-cycle-of-lunar-perigee-on-high-tidal-levels(54ec1689-b2b0-472f-a717-2019f2c6f2b9)/export.html Global influences of the 18.61 year nodal cycle and 8.85 year cycle of lunar perigee on high tidal levels, U. of Western Australia]</ref> years, that affects ither aspects o lunar motion. Thir follae-on effects are mathematically describit bi [[Cassini's Laws|Cassini's laws]].<ref name="Beletskii2" />

===Relative size===

The Muin is exceptionally lairge relative tae Yird: a quarter its diameter an 1/81 its mass.<ref name="worldbook" /> It is the lairgest muin in the Solar Seestem relative tae the size o its planet,{{efn |Thare is no strang correlation atween the sizes o planets an the sizes o thair satellites. Lairger planets tend tae hae mair satellites, baith lairge an smaw, than smawer planets.}} tho [[Charon (muin)|Charon]] is lairger relative tae the dwarf planet [[Pluto]], at 1/9 Pluto's mass.{{efn|name=Moon vs. Charon}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.planetary.org/explore/topics/pluto/ |title=Space Topics: Pluto and Charon |publisher=[[The Planetary Society]] |accessdate=6 April 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/66BdV5X0c?url=http://www.planetary.org/explore/topics/pluto/ |archivedate=2012-03-15 |df= |url-status=live }}</ref> Yird an the Muin are nivertheless still conseederit a planet–satellite seestem, raither nor a [[dooble planet]], acause thair [[barycentre]], the common centre o mass, is locatit {{Convert|1700 |km |abbr=on}} (aboot a quarter o Yird's radius) aneath Yird's surface.<ref>{{cite web |title=Planet Definition Questions & Answers Sheet |publisher=[[International Astronomical Union]] |date=2006 |url=http://www.iau.org/static/archives/releases/doc/iau0601_q_answers.doc |format=DOC |accessdate=24 March 2010 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140429052436/http://www.iau.org/static/archives/releases/doc/iau0601_q_answers.doc |archivedate=29 April 2014 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>

==={{anchor |Observation |Appearance frae Yird}} Appearance frae Yird===
[[File:Mountain Moonset.jpg|thumb |left |Muin settin in wastren sky ower the [[High Desert (Californie)|High Desert]] in Californie]]

The Muin is in [[synchronous rotation]]: it rotates aboot its axis in aboot the same time it takes tae [[orbit]] Yird. This results in it ayeweys keepin nearly the same face turned taewart Yird. Houiver, due tae the effect o [[libration#Lunar libration|libration]], aboot 59% o the Muin's surface can actually be seen frae Yird.

The Muin uised tae rotate at a fester rate, but early in its history, its rotation slawed an becam [[Tidal lockin|tidally locked]] in this orientation as a result o [[freection]]al effects associatit wi [[tidal force|tidal]] deformations caused bi Yird.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Alexander |first=M. E. |title=The Weak Friction Approximation and Tidal Evolution in Close Binary Systems |journal=[[Astrophysics and Space Science]] |date=1973 |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=459–508 |bibcode=1973Ap&SS..23..459A |doi=10.1007/BF00645172}}</ref> Wi time, the energy o rotation o the Muin on its axis wis dissipatit as heat, till thare wis no rotation o the Muin relative tae the Yird. The side o the Muin that faces Yird is cried the [[Near side o the Muin|near side]], an the opposite the [[Faur side o the Muin|faur side]]. The far side is eften inaccurately cried the "daurk side", but it is in fact illuminatit as eften as the near side: ance per lunar day, in the new muin phase we observe on Yird whan the near side is daurk.<ref>{{cite web |title=Dark Side of the Moon |author=[[Phil Plait]] |publisher=[[Bad Astronomy]]: Misconceptions |url=http://www.badastronomy.com/bad/misc/dark_side.html |accessdate=15 February 2010 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100412192834/http://www.badastronomy.com/bad/misc/dark_side.html |archivedate=12 April 2010 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> In 2016, planetary scientists, uisin data collectit on the muckle earlier Nasa [[Lunar Prospector]] mission, foond twa hydrogen-rich areas on opposite sides o the Muin, probably in the form o watter ice. It is speculatit that thir patches war the poles o the Muin billions o years aby, afore it wis tidally locked tae Yird.<ref>{{cite web |title=Moon used to spin 'on different axis' |publisher=BBC |url=http://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-35883576 |accessdate=23 March 2016 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160323203442/http://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-35883576 |archivedate=23 March 2016 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>

The Muin haes an exceptionally law [[albedo]], giein it a reflectance that is slichtly brichter nor that o worn asphalt. Despite this, it is the brichtest object in the sky efter the [[Sun]].<ref name="worldbook" />{{efn|name=brightness}} This is pairtly due tae the brichtness enhancement o the [[opposeetion effect]]; at quarter phase, the Muin is anly ane-tent as bricht, raither nor hauf as bricht, as at full muin.<ref name="Moon" />

Addeetionally, [[colour constancy]] in the [[visual seestem]] recalibrates the relations atween the colours o an object an its surroondins, an acause the surroondin sky is comparatively daurk, the sunlit Muin is perceived as a bricht object. The edges o the full muin seem as bricht as the centre, wi no [[limm daurkenin]], due tae the [[Lambert's cosine law#Lambertian scatterers|reflective properties]] o [[lunar sile]], that reflects mair licht back taewart the Sun nor in ither directions. The Muin daes appear lairger whan close tae the horizon, but this is a purely psychological effect, kent as the [[Muin illusion]], first descrived in the 7t century BC.<ref>{{cite book|last=Hershenson |first=Maurice |title=The Moon illusion |date=1989 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-0-8058-0121-7 |page=5}}</ref> The full muin subtends an arc o aboot 0.52° (on average) in the sky, aboot the same apparent size as the Sun (see {{section link | |Eclipses}}).

The heichest [[altitude (astronomy)|altitude]] o the Muin in the sky varies wi the lunar phase an the saison o the year. The full muin is heichest in winter. The 18.61-year [[lunar node|nodes cycle]] an aa haes an influence: whan the [[orbital node|ascendin node]] o the lunar orbit is in the [[vernal equinox]], the lunar [[declination]] can gae as far as 28° ilk month. This means the Muin can gang owerheid at latitudes up tae 28° frae the equator, insteid o anerly 18°. The orientation o the Muin's crescent an aa depends on the latitude o the observation steid: close tae the equator, an observer can see a smile-shaped crescent muin.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://curious.astro.cornell.edu/our-solar-system/46-our-solar-system/the-moon/observing-the-moon/124-is-the-moon-seen-as-a-crescent-and-not-a-boat-all-over-the-world-is-the-same-phase-of-the-moon-visible-from-the-northern-and-southern-hemispheres-advanced |publisher=[[Curious About Astronomy]] |title=Is the Moon seen as a crescent (and not a "boat") all over the world? |date=18 October 2002 |first=K. |last=Spekkens |accessdate=28 September 2015 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151016011356/http://curious.astro.cornell.edu/our-solar-system/46-our-solar-system/the-moon/observing-the-moon/124-is-the-moon-seen-as-a-crescent-and-not-a-boat-all-over-the-world-is-the-same-phase-of-the-moon-visible-from-the-northern-and-southern-hemispheres-advanced |archivedate=16 October 2015 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>

The Muin is veesible for twa weeks ivery 27.3 days at the [[North Pole|North]] an [[Sooth Pole]]. The Muin's licht is uised bi [[zooplankton]] in the Arctic whan the sun is ablo the horizon for months on end.<ref>{{cite magazine |title=Moonlight helps plankton escape predators during Arctic winters |magazine=[[New Scientist]] |date=16 January 2016 |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg22930562-500-moonlight-helps-plankton-escape-predators-during-arctic-winters/ |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160130112225/https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg22930562-500-moonlight-helps-plankton-escape-predators-during-arctic-winters/ |archivedate=30 January 2016 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>
[[File:Supermoon Nov-14-2016-minneapolis.jpg|thumb|The 14 November 2016 [[supermuin]] wis {{convert|356511|km|mi}} awey<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sivertimes.com/super-moon-exceptional-brightest-moon-in-the-sky-of-normandy-Monday-November-14/1872|title="Super Moon" exceptional. Brightest moon in the sky of Normandy, Monday, November 14 - The Siver Times|publisher=|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161114232404/http://sivertimes.com/super-moon-exceptional-brightest-moon-in-the-sky-of-normandy-monday-november-14/1872|archivedate=14 November 2016|df=dmy-all}}</ref> frae the centre of Earth, the closest occurrence syne 26 Januar 1948. It will nae be closer until 25 November 2034.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://astrobob.areavoices.com/2016/11/10/moongazers-delight-biggest-supermoon-in-decades-looms-large-sunday-night/|title=Moongazers Delight — Biggest Supermoon In Decades Looms Large Sunday Night|date=10 November 2016|publisher=|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161114170208/http://astrobob.areavoices.com/2016/11/10/moongazers-delight-biggest-supermoon-in-decades-looms-large-sunday-night/|archivedate=14 November 2016|df=dmy-all}}</ref>]]

The distance atween the Muin an Yird varies frae aroond {{convert |356,400 |km |mi |abbr=on}} tae {{convert |406,700 |km |mi |abbr=on}} at [[Apsis|perigees]] (closest) an apogees (faurthest), respectively. On 14 November 2016, it wis closer tae Yird whan at full phase than it haes been syne 1948, 14% closer than its faurthest poseetion in apogee.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.space.com/34515-supermoon-guide.html|title=Supermoon November 2016|date=13 November 2016|accessdate=14 November 2016|publisher=Space.com|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161114220725/http://www.space.com/34515-supermoon-guide.html|archivedate=14 November 2016|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Reportit as a "[[Supermoon|super muin]]", this closest pynt coincides within an oor o a [[full muin]], an it wis 30% mair luminous than whan at its greatest distance due tae its angular diameter bein 14% greater, acause <math>\scriptstyle1.14^2\approx1.30</math>.<ref>

 {{cite web
 |title=Super Full Moon 
 |date=16 March 2011 
 |author=Tony Phillips 
 |publisher=[[NASA]] 
 |accessdate=19 March 2011 
 |url=https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2011/16mar_supermoon/ 
 |deadurl=yes 
 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120507035348/https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2011/16mar_supermoon/ 
 |archivedate=7 May 2012 
 |df= 
}}

</ref><ref>

 {{cite web|title=Full moon tonight is as close as it gets
 |date=18 March 2011
 |author=Richard K. De Atley
 |publisher=[[The Press-Enterprise]]
 |accessdate=19 March 2011
 |url=http://www.pe.com/localnews/stories/PE_News_Local_D_moon19.23a6364.html
 |deadurl=yes
 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110322161600/http://www.pe.com/localnews/stories/PE_News_Local_D_moon19.23a6364.html
 |archivedate=22 March 2011
 |df=dmy-all
 }}</ref><ref>

 {{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2011/mar/19/super-moon-closest-point-years |title='Super moon' to reach closest point for almost 20 years |work=The Guardian |date=19 March 2011 |accessdate=19 March 2011 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131225175506/http://www.theguardian.com/science/2011/mar/19/super-moon-closest-point-years |archivedate=25 December 2013 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> At lower levels, the human perception o reduced brightness as a percentage is providit bi the follaein formula:<ref>
 {{cite web
 |last=Georgia State University, Dept. of Physics (Astronomy)
 |title=Perceived Brightness
 |url=http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/vision/bright.html
 |work=Brightnes and Night/Day Sensitivity
 |publisher=[[Georgia State University]]
 |accessdate=25 January 2014
 |deadurl=no
 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140221094605/http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/vision/bright.html
 |archivedate=21 February 2014
 |df=dmy-all
 }}</ref><ref>
 {{cite web
 |last=Lutron
 |title=Measured light vs. perceived light
 |url=http://www.lutron.com/TechnicalDocumentLibrary/Measured_vs_Perceived.pdf
 |work=From IES Lighting Handbook 2000, 27-4
 |publisher=[[Lutron]]
 |accessdate=25 January 2014
 |deadurl=no
 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130205204351/http://www.lutron.com/TechnicalDocumentLibrary/Measured_vs_Perceived.pdf
 |archivedate=5 February 2013
 |df=dmy-all
 }}</ref>

<math>\text{perceived reduction}\%=100 \times \sqrt{\text{actual reduction}\% \over 100}</math>

Whan the actual reduction is 1.00 / 1.30, or about 0.770, the perceived reduction is aboot 0.877, or 1.00 / 1.14. This gies a maximum perceived increase o 14% atween apogee an perigee muins o the same phase.<ref>
 {{cite web
 |last=Walker
 |first=John
 |title=Inconstant Moon
 |url=http://www.fourmilab.ch/earthview/moon_ap_per.html
 |work=Earth and Moon Viewer
 |publisher=[[Fourmilab]]
 |accessdate=23 January 2014
 |location=Fourth paragraph of "How Bright the Moonlight"
 |date=May 1997
 |quote=14% [...] due to the logarithmic response of the human eye.
 |deadurl=no
 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131214123836/https://www.fourmilab.ch/earthview/moon_ap_per.html
 |archivedate=14 December 2013
 |df=dmy-all
 }}</ref>

Thare haes been historical controversy ower whether featurs on the Muin's surface chynge ower time. The day, mony o thir claims are thocht tae be illusory, resultin frae observation unner different lichtin condeetions, puir [[astronomical seein]], or inadequate drawins. Houiver, [[ootgassin]] daes occasionally occur, an coud be responsible for a minor percentage o the reportit [[transient lunar phenomenon|lunar transient phenomena]]. Recently, it haes been suggestit that aboot a {{Convert |3 |km |abbr=on}} diameter region o the lunar surface wis modified bi a gas release event aboot a million years aby.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.psrd.hawaii.edu/Nov06/MoonGas.html |last=Taylor |first=G.J. |title=Recent Gas Escape from the Moon |work=Planetary Science Research Discoveries |publisher=[[Hawai'i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology]] |date=8 November 2006 |accessdate=4 April 2007 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070304055515/http://www.psrd.hawaii.edu/Nov06/MoonGas.html |archivedate=4 March 2007 |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Schultz |first=P. H. |author2=Staid, M. I. |author3=Pieters, C. M. |date=2006 |title=Lunar activity from recent gas release |journal=[[Nature (jurnal)|Nature]] |volume=444 |pages=184–186 |doi=10.1038/nature05303 |pmid=17093445 |issue=7116 |bibcode=2006Natur.444..184S}}</ref> The Muin's appearance, lik that o the Sun, can be affectit bi Yird's atmosphere: common effects are a 22° [[Halo (optical phenomenon)|halo ring]] formed whan the Muin's licht is refractit throu the ice creestals o heich [[cirrostratus]] cloud, an smawer [[Corona (meteorology)|coronal rings]] whan the Muin is seen throu thin cloods.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/%28Gh%29/guides/mtr/opt/ice/halo/22.rxml |title=22 Degree Halo: a ring of light 22 degrees from the sun or moon |publisher=Department of Atmospheric Sciences, [[University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign]] |accessdate=13 April 2010 |archive-date=2010-04-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100405070654/http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/(Gh)/guides/mtr/opt/ice/halo/22.rxml |url-status=dead }}</ref>

{{wide image |Moon_phases_en.jpg |550px |The monthly cheenges o angle between the direction o illumination bi the Sun an viewin frae Yird, an the [[Lunar phase|phases o the Muin]] that result as viewed frae the northren hemisphere. Yird–Muin distance is nae tae scale.}}

The illuminatit area o the veesible sphere (degree o illumination) is gien bi <math>(1-\cos e)/2=\sin^2(e/2)</math>, whaur <math>e</math> is the [[elongation (astronomy)|elongation]] (i.e., the angle atween Muin, the observer (on Yird) an the Sun).

===Tidal effects===
{{main article |Tide}}
[[File:Lunar libration with phase Oct 2007 (continuous loop).gif|thumb |alt=Ower ane lunar month mair nor hauf o the Muin's surface can be seen frae Yird's surface. |The [[libration]] o the Muin ower a single lunar month. An aa veesible is the slicht variation in the Muin's veesual size frae Yird.]]

The gravitational attraction that masses hae for ane anither decreases inversely wi the square o the distance o thae masses frae ilk ither. As a result, the slichtly greater attraction that the Muin haes for the side o Yird closest tae the Muin, as compared tae the pairt o the Yird opposite the Muin, results in [[tidal forces]]. Tidal forces affect baith the Yird's crust an oceans.

The maist obvious effect o tidal forces is tae cause twa bulges in the Yird's oceans, ane on the side facin the Muin an the ither on the side opposite. This results in elevatit sea levels cried [[tide|ocean tides]].<ref name="Lambeck1977" /> As the Yird spins on its axis, ane o the ocean bulges (heich tide) is held in place "unner" the Muin, while anither sic tide is opposite. As a result, thare are twa heich tides, an twa law tides in aboot 24 oors.<ref name="Lambeck1977" /> Syne the Muin is orbitin the Yird in the same direction o the Yird's rotation, the heich tides occur aboot ivery 12 oors an 25 minutes; the 25 minutes is due tae the Muin's time tae orbit the Yird. The Sun haes the same tidal effect on the Yird, but its forces o attraction are anerly 40% that o the Muin's; the Sun's an Muin's interplay is responsible for [[Ware tide|ware an neap tides]].<ref name="Lambeck1977" /> If the Yird war a watter warld (ane wi no continents) it wad produce a tide o anly ane meter, an that tide wad be verra predictable, but the ocean tides are greatly modified bi ither effects: the freectional cooplin o watter tae Yird's rotation throu the ocean fluirs, the [[inertia]] o watter's muivement, ocean basins that graw shallaer near laund, the sloshin o watter atween different ocean basins.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Le Provost |first=C. |author2=Bennett, A. F. |author3=Cartwright, D. E. |date=1995 |title=Ocean Tides for and from TOPEX/POSEIDON |pages=639–42 |journal=[[Science (jurnal)|Science]] |pmid=17745840 |volume=267 |issue=5198 |bibcode=1995Sci...267..639L |doi=10.1126/science.267.5198.639}}</ref> As a result, the timing o the tides at maist pynts on the Yird is a product o observations that are explained, incidentally, bi theory.

While gravitation causes acceleration an movement o the Yird's fluid oceans, gravitational cooplin atween the Muin an Yird's solit bouk is maistly elastic an plastic. The result is a forder tidal effect o the Muin on the Yird that causes a bulge o the solit portion o the Yird nearest the Muin that acts as a [[torque]] in opposeetion tae the Yird's rotation. This "drains" [[angular momentum]] an rotational [[kinetic energy]] frae Yird's spin, slowing the Yird's rotation.<ref name="Lambeck1977" /><ref name="touma1994" /> That angular momentum, lost frae the Yird, is transferred tae the Muin in a process (confusingly kent as [[tidal acceleration]]), that lifts the Muin intae a heicher orbit an results in its lawer orbital speed aboot the Yird. Sicweys the distance atween Yird an Muin is [[tidal acceleration|increasin]], an the Yird's spin is slawin in reaction.<ref name="touma1994" /> Measurements frae laser reflectors left in the Apollo missions ([[lunar laser rangin experiment|lunar rangin experiments]]) hae foond that the Muin's distance increases bi {{Convert |38 |mm |abbr=on}} per year<ref>{{cite journal |last=Chapront |first=J. |author2=Chapront-Touzé, M. |author3=Francou, G. |date=2002 |title=A new determination of lunar orbital parameters, precession constant and tidal acceleration from LLR measurements |journal=[[Astronomy and Astrophysics]] |volume=387 |issue=2 |pages=700–709 |doi=10.1051/0004-6361:20020420 |bibcode=2002A&A...387..700C}}</ref> (aboot the rate at that human fingernails growe).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-12311119 |title=Why the Moon is getting further away from Earth |work=BBC News |date=1 February 2011 |accessdate=18 September 2015 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925185706/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-12311119 |archivedate=25 September 2015 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>
[[Atomic clock]]s an aa shaw that Yird's day lenthens bi aboot 15&nbsp;[[microseicont]]s ivery year,<ref>{{cite web |last=Ray |first=R. |date=15 May 2001 |url=http://bowie.gsfc.nasa.gov/ggfc/tides/intro.html |title=Ocean Tides and the Earth's Rotation |publisher=[[IERS Special Bureau for Tides]] |accessdate=17 March 2010 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100327084125/http://bowie.gsfc.nasa.gov/ggfc/tides/intro.html |archivedate=27 March 2010 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> slawly increasin the rate at that [[Coordinatit Universal Time|UTC]] is adjuistit bi [[leap seicont]]s.
Left tae run its coorse, this tidal drag wad continue till the spin o Yird an the orbital period o the Muin matched, creautin mutual tidal lockin atween the twa. As a result, the Muin wad be suspendit in the sky ower ane meridian, as is awreidy currently the case wi [[Pluto]] an its muin [[Charon (muin)|Charon]]. Houiver, the Sun will become a [[reid giant#The Sun as a reid giant|reid giant]] engulfin the Yird-Muin seestem lang afore this occurrence.<ref>{{cite book |author=Murray, C.D. |author2=Dermott, Stanley F. |title=Solar System Dynamics |date=1999 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-57295-8 |page=184}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Dickinson |first=Terence |authorlink=Terence Dickinson |title=From the Big Bang to Planet X |url=https://archive.org/details/frombigbangtopla00unse |date=1993 |publisher=[[Camden House]] |location=Camden East, Ontario |isbn=978-0-921820-71-0 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/frombigbangtopla00unse/page/79 79]–81}}
</ref>

In a lik manner, the lunar surface experiences tides o aroond {{Convert |10 |cm |4=0 |abbr=on}} amplitude ower 27&nbsp;days, wi twa components: a fixed ane due tae Yird, acause thay are in [[synchronous rotation]], an a varyin component frae the Sun.<ref name="touma1994"/> The Yird-induced component arises frae [[libration]], a result o the Muin's orbital eccentricity (if the Muin's orbit war perfectly circular, thare wad anerly be solar tides).<ref name="touma1994" /> Libration an aa cheenges the angle frae that the Muin is seen, allouin a tot o aboot 59% o its surface tae be seen frae Yird ower time.<ref name="worldbook" /> The cumulative effects o stress biggit up bi thir tidal forces produces [[muinquauks]]. Muinquakes are muckle less common an waiker nor are yirdquauks, awtho muin quauks can last for up tae an oor—a signeeficantly langer time than terrestrial quauks—acause o the absence o watter tae damp oot the seismic vibrations. The existence o muinquauks wis an unexpectit discovery frae [[seismometer]]s placed on the Muin bi [[Apollo program|Apollo]] [[astronaut]]s frae 1969 throu 1972.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Latham |first1=Gary |date=1972 |last2=Ewing |first2=Maurice |last3=Dorman |first3=James |last4=Lammlein |first4=David |last5=Press |first5=Frank |last6=Toksőz |first6=Naft |last7=Sutton |first7=George |last8=Duennebier |first8=Fred |last9=Nakamura |first9=Yosio |title=Moonquakes and lunar tectonism |journal=[[Earth, Moon, and Planets]] |volume=4 |issue=3–4 |pages=373–382 |doi=10.1007/BF00562004 |bibcode=1972Moon....4..373L}}</ref>

===Eclipses===
{{main article |Solar eclipse |Lunar eclipse}}
{{multiple image
 |width1=152
 |width2=150
 |image1=Solar_eclipse_1999_4_NR.jpg
 |alt1=The fiercely bright disk o the Sun is completely obscured bi the exact fit o the disk o the daurk, non-illuminatit Moon, leavin anerly the radial, fuzzy, glawin coronal filaments o the Sun aroond the edge.
 |image2=STEREO-B solar eclipse.jpg
 |alt2=The bricht disk o the Sun, shawin mony coronal filaments, flares an grainy patches in the wavelenth o this eemage, is pairtly obscured bi a smaw dark disk: here, the Muin covers less than a fifteent o the Sun.
 |footer=Frae Yird, the Muin an the Sun appear the same size, as seen in the [[Solar eclipse o August 11, 1999|1999 solar eclipse]] (left), whauras frae the ''[[Solar Terrestrial Relations Observatory|STEREO-B]]'' spacecraft in an Yird-trailin orbit, the Muin appears mukle smawer than the Sun (richt).<ref>{{cite web|author=Phillips, Tony |work=Science@NASA |title=Stereo Eclipse |date=12 March 2007 |accessdate=17 March 2010 |url=https://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2007/12mar_stereoeclipse.htm |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080610082213/https://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2007/12mar_stereoeclipse.htm |archivedate=10 June 2008 |df= }}</ref>
}}

Eclipses can anerly occur whan the Sun, Yird, an Muin are aw in a straucht line (termed "[[Syzygy (astronomy)|syzygy]]"). [[Solar eclipse]]s occur at [[new muin]], whan the Muin is atween the Sun an Yird. In contrast, [[lunar eclipse]]s occur at [[full muin]], whan Yird is atween the Sun an Muin. The apparent size o the Muin is aboot the same as that o the Sun, wi baith bein viewed at close tae ane-hauf a degree wide. The Sun is muckle lairger nor the Muin but it is the precise vastly greater distance that gies it the same apparent size as the muckle closer an much smawer Muin frae the perspective o Yird. The variations in apparent size, due tae the non-circular orbits, are nearly the same as well, tho occurrin in different cycles. This maks possible baith [[total eclipse|total]] (wi the Muin appearin lairger than the Sun) an [[annular eclipse|annular]] (wi the Muin appearin smawer than the Sun) solar eclipses.<ref>{{cite web |first=F. |last=Espenak |date=2000 |url=http://www.mreclipse.com/Special/SEprimer.html |title=Solar Eclipses for Beginners |publisher=MrEclip]] |accessdate=17 March 2010}}</ref> In a tot eclipse, the Muin completely covers the disc o the Sun an the solar [[corona]] becomes vrrsible tae the [[nakit ee]]. Acause the distance atween the Muin an Yird is verra slawly increasin ower time,<ref name="Lambeck1977" /> the angular diameter o the Muin is decreasin. An aa, as it evolves thewarts becomin a [[reid giant]], the size o the Sun, an its apparent diameter in the sky, are slawly increasin.{{efn|name=size changes}} The combination o thir twa cheenges means that hunders o millions o years ago, the Muin wad alyeweys completely civer the Sun on solar eclipses, an no annular eclipses war possible. Likwise, hunders o millions o years in the futur, the Muin will no langer civer the Sun completely, an tot solar eclipses will nae occur.<ref name=fourmilab>{{cite web |last=Walker |first=John |url=http://www.fourmilab.ch/images/peri_apo/ |title=Moon near Perigee, Earth near Aphelion |publisher=[[Fourmilab]] |date=10 July 2004 |accessdate=25 December 2013 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131208153430/http://www.fourmilab.ch/images/peri_apo/ |archivedate=8 December 2013 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>

Acause the Muin's orbit aroond Yird is inclined bi aboot 5.145° (5° 9') tae the [[ecliptic|orbit o Yird aroond the Sun]], eclipses dae nae occur at ivery full an new muin. For an eclipse tae occur, the Muin must be near the intersection o the twa orbital planes.<ref name="eclipse" /> The periodicity an recurrence o eclipses o the Sun bi the Muin, an o the Muin bi Yird, is describit bi the [[Saros (astronomy)|saros]], that haes a period o approximately 18&nbsp;years.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sunearth.gsfc.nasa.gov/eclipse/SEsaros/SEsaros.html |last=Espenak |first=F. |title=Saros Cycle |publisher=[[NASA]] |accessdate=17 March 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://archive.today/20120524183445/sunearth.gsfc.nasa.gov/eclipse/SEsaros/SEsaros.html |archivedate=24 May 2012 |df= }}</ref>

Acause the Muin is continuously blockin oor view o a hauf-degree-wide circular area o the sky,{{efn |name=area}}<ref>{{cite magazine |title=The Square Degree as a Unit of Celestial Area |author=Guthrie, D.V. |date=1947 |magazine=[[Popular Astronomy (US magazine)|Popular Astronomy]] |volume=55 |pages=200–203 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1947PA.....55..200 |bibcode=1947PA.....55..200G}}</ref> the relatit phenomenon o [[occultation]] occurs whan a bricht starn or planet passes ahint the Muin an is occultit: hidden frae view. In this wey, a solar eclipse is an occultation o the Sun. Because the Muin is comparatively close tae Yird, occultations o individual starns are nae veesible iverywhaur on the planet, nor at the same time. Acause o the [[precession]] o the lunar orbit, ilk year different stars are occulted.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://occsec.wellington.net.nz/total/totoccs.htm |title=Total Lunar Occultations |publisher=[[Royal Astronomical Society of New Zealand]] |accessdate=17 March 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100223022627/http://occsec.wellington.net.nz/total/totoccs.htm |archivedate=23 February 2010 |df= }}</ref>

==References==
===Notes===
{{notes
 |notes=
 {{efn |name=inclination
 |Atween 18.29° an 28.58° tae Yird's [[equator]].<ref name="W06"/>
}}
 {{efn|name=maxval
 |The ''maximum vailyie'' is gien based on scalin o the brichtness frae the vailyie o −12.74 gien for an equator tae Muin-centre distance o 378&nbsp;000&nbsp;km in the NASA factsheet reference tae the meenimum Yird–Muin distance gien thare, efter the latter is correctit for Yird's equatorial radius o 6&nbsp;378&nbsp;km, giein 350&nbsp;600&nbsp;km. The ''meenimum vailyie'' (for a distant [[new muin]]) is based on a seemilar scalin uisin the maximum Yird–Muin distance o 407&nbsp;000&nbsp;km (gien in the factsheet) an bi calculatin the brichtness o the [[yirdshine]] ontae sic a new muin. The brichtness o the yirdshine is {{nowrap|[ Yird [[albedo]] ×}} {{nowrap|([[Yird radius]] /}} Radius o [[Orbit o the Muin|Muin's orbit]])<sup>2</sup>&nbsp;] relative tae the direct solar illumination that occurs for a full muin. ({{nowrap |Earth albedo {{=}} 0.367}}; {{nowrap |Yird radius {{=}} (polar}} radius&nbsp;× equatorial {{nowrap |radius)<sup>½</sup> {{=}} 6 367 km}}.)
}}
 {{efn |name=angular size
 |The range o angular size vailyies gien are based on semple scalin o the follaein vailyies gien in the fact sheet reference: at an Yird-equator tae Muin-centre distance o 378&nbsp;000&nbsp;km, the [[Angular diameter|angular size]] is 1896&nbsp;[[arcseicont]]s. The same fact sheet gies extreme Yird–Muin distances o 407&nbsp;000&nbsp;km an 357&nbsp;000&nbsp;km. For the maximum angular size, the meenimum distance haes ae be correctit for Yird's equatorial radius o 6&nbsp;378&nbsp;km, giein 350&nbsp;600&nbsp;km.
}}
 {{efn|name=pressure explanation
 |Lucey et al. (2006) gie {{nowrap |10<sup>7</sup> particles cm<sup>−3</sup>}} bi day an {{nowrap |10<sup>5</sup> pairticles cm<sup>−3</sup>}} bi nicht. Alang wi equatorial surface temperaturs o 390&nbsp;[[Kelvin|K]] bi day an 100&nbsp;K bi nicht, the [[ideal gas law]] yields the pressurs gien in the infobox (roondit tae the nearest [[order o magnitude]]): 10<sup>−7</sup>&nbsp;[[Pascal (unit)|Pa]] bi day an 10<sup>−10</sup>&nbsp;Pa bi nicht.
}}
 {{efn |name=near-Earth asteroids
 |Thare are a nummer o [[near-Yird asteroid]]s, includin [[3753 Cruithne]], that are [[co-orbital]] wi Yird: thair orbits bring them close tae Yird for periods o time but then alter in the lang term (Morais et al, 2002). Thir are [[quasi-satellite]]s&nbsp;– thay are not muins as thay dae nae orbit Yird. For mair information, see [[Ither muins o Yird]].
}}
 {{efn|name=Moon vs. Charon
 |Wi 27% the diameter an 60% the density o Yird, the Muin haes 1.23% o the mass o Yird. The muin [[Charon (muin)|Charon]] is lairger relative tae its primar [[Pluto]], but Pluto is nou conseedert tae be a [[dwarf planet]].
}}
 {{efn |name=orbpd
 |Mair accurately, the Muin's mean sidereal period (fixed starn tae fixed starn) is 27.321661&nbsp;days {{nowrap |(27 d 07 o 43 meen 11.5 s)}}, an its mean tropical orbital period (frae equinox tae equinox) is 27.321582&nbsp;days {{nowrap |(27 d 07 o 43 meen 04.7 s)}} (''Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Ephemeris'', 1961, at p.107).
}}
 {{efn |name=synpd
 |Mair accurately, the Muin's mean synodic period (atween mean solar conjunctions) is 29.530589&nbsp;days {{nowrap |(29 d 12 h 44 min 02.9 s)}} (''Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Ephemeris'', 1961, at p.107).
}}
 {{efn |name=brightness
 |The Sun's [[apparent magnitude]] is −26.7, while the full muin's apparent magnitude is −12.7.
}}
 {{efn|name=area
 |On average, the Muin covers an area o {{nowrap |0.21078 square degrees}} on the nicht sky.
}}
 {{efn |name=size changes
 |See graph in [[Sun#Life phases]]. At present, the diameter o the Sun is increasin at a rate o aboot five percent per billion years. This is verra seemilar tae the rate at that the apparent angular diameter o the Muin is decreasin as it recedes frae Yird.
}}
}}

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{{cite journal | last1 = Wieczorek| first1 = Mark A.| last2 = Jolliff| first2 = Bradley L.| last3 = Khan| first3 = Amir| last4 = Pritchard| first4 = Matthew E.| last5 = Weiss| first5 = Benjamin P.| last6 = Williams| first6 = James G.| last7 = Hood| first7 = Lon L.| last8 = Righter| first8 = Kevin| last9 = Neal| first9 = Clive R.| last10 = Shearer| first10 = Charles K.| last11 = McCallum| first11 = I. Stewart| last12 = Tompkins| first12 = Stephanie| last13 = Hawke| first13 = B. Ray| last14 = Peterson| first14 = Chris| last15 = Gillis| first15 = Jeffrey J.| last16 = Bussey| first16 = Ben |title=The constitution and structure of the lunar interior |journal=[[Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry]] |volume=60 |issue=1 |pages=221–364 |date=2006 |doi=10.2138/rmg.2006.60.3 |display-authors=1}}
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</ref>
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{{cite web |url=http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/SpaceLaw/moon.html |title=Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies |publisher=[[United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs]] |accessdate=28 March 2010 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100809072447/http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/SpaceLaw/moon.html |archivedate=9 August 2010 |df=dmy-all }}
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{{cite web |url=http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/FAQ/splawfaq.html#Q7 |title=The treaties control space-related activities of States. What about non-governmental entities active in outer space, like companies and even individuals? |publisher=[[United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs]] |accessdate=28 March 2010 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100421232450/http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/FAQ/splawfaq.html#Q7 |archivedate=21 April 2010 |df=dmy-all }}
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{{cite web |url=http://www.iislweb.org/docs/IISL_Outer_Space_Treaty_Statement.pdf |title=Statement by the Board of Directors of the IISL On Claims to Property Rights Regarding The Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (2004) |date=2004 |publisher=[[International Institute of Space Law]] |accessdate=28 March 2010 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091222021426/http://www.iislweb.org/docs/IISL_Outer_Space_Treaty_Statement.pdf |archivedate=22 December 2009 |df=dmy-all }}
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{{cite web |url=http://www.iislweb.org/docs/Statement%20BoD.pdf |title=Further Statement by the Board of Directors of the IISL On Claims to Lunar Property Rights (2009) |date=22 March 2009 |publisher=[[International Institute of Space Law]] |accessdate=28 March 2010 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091222022107/http://www.iislweb.org/docs/Statement%20BoD.pdf |archivedate=22 December 2009 |df=dmy-all }}
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{{cite web |url=http://www.spacetoday.org/SolSys/Earth/OldStarCharts.html |title=Carved and Drawn Prehistoric Maps of the Cosmos |publisher=[[Space Today]] |date=2006 |accessdate=12 April 2007 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/66Bhc1WIC?url=http://www.spacetoday.org/SolSys/Earth/OldStarCharts.html |archivedate=15 March 2012 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>
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</ref>
-->
<ref name="Williams1996">{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=James G. |last2=Newhall |first2=XX |last3=Dickey |first3=Jean O. |title=Lunar moments, tides, orientation, and coordinate frames |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_planetary-and-space-science_1996-10_44_10/page/1077 |journal=[[Planetary and Space Science]] |volume=44 |issue=10 |date=1996 |pages=1077–1080 |doi=10.1016/0032-0633(95)00154-9 |bibcode=1996P&SS...44.1077W}}</ref>
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<ref name="MartensKelly1988">{{cite journal |last1=Martens |first1=R. |last2=Kelly |first2=I. W. |last3=Saklofske |first3=D. H. |title=Lunar Phase and Birthrate: A 50-year Critical Review |journal=[[Psychological Reports]] |volume=63 |issue=3 |date=1988 |pages=923–934 |doi=10.2466/pr0.1988.63.3.923}}</ref>
<ref name="RottonKelly1985">{{cite journal |last1=Rotton |first1=James |last2=Kelly |first2=I. W. |title=Much ado about the full moon: A meta-analysis of lunar-lunacy research. |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_psychological-bulletin_1985-03_97_2/page/286 |journal=[[Psychological Bulletin]] |volume=97 |issue=2 |date=1985 |pages=286–306 |doi=10.1037/0033-2909.97.2.286}}</ref>
<ref name="FosterRoenneberg2008">{{cite journal |last1=Foster |first1=Russell G. |last2=Roenneberg |first2=Till |title=Human Responses to the Geophysical Daily, Annual and Lunar Cycles |journal=[[Current Biology]] |volume=18 |issue=17 |date=2008 |pages=R784–R794 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2008.07.003 |pmid=18786384}}</ref>
<ref name="kelly">{{Citation
 |last=Kelly |first=Ivan |last2=Rotton |first2=James
 |last3=Culver |first3=Roger |date=1986
 |title=The Moon Was Full and Nothing Happened: A Review of Studies on the Moon and Human Behavior
 |journal=[[Skeptical Inquirer]] |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=129–43
 |url=
}}. Reprinted in ''The Hundredth Monkey - and other paradigms of the paranormal'', edited by Kendrick Frazier, Prometheus Books. Revised and updated in ''The Outer Edge: Classic Investigations of the Paranormal'', edited by [[Joe Nickell]], [[Barry Karr]], and [[Tom Genoni]], 1996, [[CSICOP]].</ref>
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}}<!--(end {{notes}})-->

===Bibliography===
{{refbegin}}
* {{anchor|CITEREFNeedham1986}}{{cite book |last=Needham |first=Joseph |title=Science and Civilization in China, Volume III: Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and Earth |url=https://books.google.com/?id=jfQ9E0u4pLAC |date=1986 |publisher=[[Caves Books]] |isbn=978-0-521-05801-8 |place=Taipei}}
{{refend}}

[[Category:Muin| ]]